01.Series in BioEngineering
09.1. Introduction to Biosensors
10.1.1 Introduction to Biosensors
11.1.1.1 Historical Development of Biosensors
12.1.1.2 Immobilization of Biorecognition Elements
13.1.1.3 From Development to Market
14.1.1.4 Biosensor Applications and Future Outlooks
15.1.2 Foundations of Biosensors
16.1.2.1 Static Characteristics of Sensors
17.1.2.2 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors
18.1.3 Uncertainty in Sensor Measurements
19.1.3.1 Measurement Error
20.1.4 ISO GUM and Uncertainty Budgeting in Biosensors
21.1.4.1 Concept of Measurement and Sources of Error
22.1.4.2 Definition and Meaning of Measurement Uncertainty
23.1.4.3 Types of Uncertainty Evaluation
24.1.4.4 Combination of Uncertainty Components
25.1.4.5 Reporting and Traceability of Measurement Results
26.2. Types of Biosensors
27.2.1 Electrochemical Biosensors
29.2.1.2 Technical Characteristics
30.2.1.3 Types of Devices
31.2.1.4 Clinical Applications
32.2.1.5 Regulatory Considerations
33.2.1.6 Future Perspectives
34.2.2 Optical Biosensors
36.2.2.2 Technical Characteristics
37.2.2.3 Types of Devices
38.2.2.4 Clinical Applications
39.2.2.5 Regulatory Considerations
40.2.2.6 Future Perspectives
41.2.3 Impedance Biosensors
43.2.3.2 Technical Characteristics
44.2.3.3 Types of Devices
45.2.3.4 Clinical Applications
46.2.3.5 Regulatory Considerations
47.2.3.6 Future Perspectives
48.2.4 Acoustic and Piezoelectric Biosensors
50.2.4.2 Types of Devices
51.2.4.3 Technical Characteristics
52.2.4.4 Clinical Applications
53.2.4.5 Regulatory Considerations
54.2.5 Electrical and Field-Effect Biosensors
56.2.5.2 Technical Characteristics
57.2.5.3 Types of Devices
58.2.5.4 Clinical Applications
59.2.5.5 Regulatory Considerations
60.2.5.6 Future Perspectives
63.2.6.2 Technical Characteristics
64.2.6.3 Types of Devices
65.2.6.4 Clinical Applications
66.2.6.5 Regulatory Considerations
67.2.6.6 Future Perspectives
68.3. Applications and Future Trends
69.3.1 Biomedical Applications of Biosensors
70.3.1.1 Diagnostic Applications
71.3.1.2 Cancer and Molecular Diagnostics
72.3.1.3 Therapeutic and Drug-Monitoring Applications
73.3.1.4 Physiological and Wearable Monitoring
74.3.1.5 Biosensors in Critical and Preventive Medicine
75.3.1.6 Emerging Technologies
76.3.2 Future Trends and Challenges in Biosensors
77.3.2.1 Integration of Biosensors in Smartphones
78.3.2.2 Types of Smartphone-Based Biosensors
79.3.2.3 Miniaturization of Biosensors
80.3.2.4 Artificial Intelligence in Biosensor Data Analysis
81.3.2.5 Challenges in Biocompatibility and Long-Term Stability
82.4. Review & Practice Problems
83.4.1 Summary of Key Concepts
84.4.2 Practice Problems and Exercises
85.4.2.1 Introduction to Biosensors
86.4.2.2 Foundations of Biosensors
87.4.2.3 Uncertainty in Sensor Measurements
88.4.2.4 ISO GUM and Uncertainty Budgeting in Biosensors
89.4.2.5 Electrochemical Biosensors
90.4.2.6 Optical Biosensors
91.4.2.7 Impedance Biosensors
92.4.2.8 Acoustic and Piezoelectric Biosensors
93.4.2.9 Electrical and Field-Effect Biosensors
95.4.2.11 Biomedical Applications of Biosensors
309.Fig. 1.1: Block diagram of a biosensor (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schematic_diagram_of_typical_biosensor.webp)
310.Fig. 1.2: Various applications of biosensors (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Various_applications_where_biosensors_have_been_used.png)
311.Fig. 1.3: Timeline of biosensor development
312.Fig. 1.4: Clark electrode (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clark_Oxygen_Electrode.png)
313.Fig. 1.5: Structural components of a biosensor (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_schematic_representation_of_electrochemical_biosensor_and_its_components.jpg)
314.Fig. 1.6: Biosensor signal pathway
315.Fig. 1.7: Classification by biorecognition principle
316.Fig. 1.8: Transduction-based classification of biosensors
317.Fig. 1.9: Application spectrum of biosensors
318.Fig. 1.10: Typical calibration curve for a biosensor (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calibration_curve.png)
319.Fig. 1.11: Accuracy—trueness and precision (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Accuracy_(trueness_and_precision).svg)
320.Fig. 1.12: Accuracy and precision (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Accuracy_and_Precision.svg)
321.Fig. 1.13: Hysteresis curve (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hysteresiscurve.svg)
322.Fig. 1.14: Time variation of a step function (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Unit_Step_function_u%28t%29_-_SST_-_08DEC05.png)
323.Fig. 1.15: Zero-order system (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zero_order.JPG)
324.Fig. 1.16: Second-order system (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Second_order_transfer_function.svg)
325.Fig. 2.1: General architecture of an electrochemical biosensor
326.Fig. 2.2: Timeline of key developments in electrochemical biosensors
327.Fig. 2.3: Design requirements and influencing factors diagram
328.Fig. 2.4: Three-electrode electrochemical cell schematic
329.Fig. 2.5: Potentiostat (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Potentiostat_ro_1.png)
330.Fig. 2.6: Regulatory approval pathway flowchart
331.Fig. 2.7: Emerging biosensor technologies
332.Fig. 2.8: General architecture of an optical biosensor
333.Fig. 2.9: Signal processing workflow in optical biosensors
334.Fig. 2.10: Optical biosensors comparison
335.Fig. 2.11: Overview of optical biosensor applications in medicine
336.Fig. 2.12: Regulatory approval pathway for optical biosensors
337.Fig. 2.13: Emerging directions in optical biosensing
338.Fig. 2.14: Timeline of EIS development and milestones
339.Fig. 2.15: Randles circuit model (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Randles_circuit.png)
340.Fig. 2.16: Configurations of impedance biosensors
341.Fig. 2.17: Schematic representation of EIS biosensor applications
342.Fig. 2.18: Regulatory compliance framework for electrochemical biosensors
343.Fig. 2.19: General architecture of an acoustic biosensor
344.Fig. 2.20: Timeline of piezoelectric biosensors evolution
345.Fig. 2.21: QCM system architecture
346.Fig. 2.22: SAW device layout
347.Fig. 2.23: Functional blocks of an acoustic biosensor system
348.Fig. 2.24: Approval pathways for biosensors (EU vs. US)
349.Fig. 2.25: Structure of a typical electrical biosensor
350.Fig. 2.26: Timeline of FET biosensor history
351.Fig. 2.27: Variants of BioFETs
352.Fig. 2.28: Emerging directions in FET biosensing
353.Fig. 2.29: Basic principle of an immunosensor
354.Fig. 2.30: Timeline of immunosensor evolution
355.Fig. 2.31: Functional block diagram of an immunosensor
356.Fig. 2.32: Main categories of immunosensors
357.Fig. 2.33: Emerging directions in immunosensor technology
358.Fig. 3.1: Flowchart of data transmission from wearable biosensor to smartphone application
359.Fig. 3.2: Workflow for preventive screening using point-of-care biosensors
360.Table 1.1: Types of biorecognition elements
361.Table 1.2: Common transduction mechanisms
362.Table 1.3: Analytical performance parameters summary
363.Table 1.4: Core validation metrics for biosensors
364.Table 1.5: Advantages and limitations
365.Table 2.1: Classification of biosensors by recognition mechanism and transduction principle
366.Table 2.2: Common electrode materials and characteristics
367.Table 2.3: Main electrochemical techniques and their analytical purpose
368.Table 2.4: Performance summary of major biosensor types
369.Table 2.5: Representative clinical biosensors and analytical parameters
370.Table 2.6: Common light sources and detectors in optical biosensors
371.Table 2.7: Software functions and associated tools
372.Table 2.8: Comparison of optical biosensor types
373.Table 2.9: Representative clinical biomarkers detected by optical biosensors
374.Table 2.10: Comparison between EIS and other electrochemical techniques
375.Table 2.11: Common electrode materials and their properties in EIS biosensors
376.Table 2.12: Interpretation of EIS parameters in biosensing
377.Table 2.13: Comparison among electrochemical biosensor types
378.Table 2.14: Future research trends and expected impacts
379.Table 2.15: Representative pathogen detection studies using QCM
380.Table 2.16: Typical materials used in BioFET construction
381.Table 2.17: Core software functions
382.Table 2.18: Characteristic parameters of electrical biosensor types
383.Table 2.19: Common transducer types
384.Table 2.20: Software functions and algorithms
385.Table 2.21: Electrochemical immunosensor subtypes
386.Table 2.22: Optical immunosensor methods
387.Table 3.1: Comparison of biosensor-based and conventional diagnostic methods
388.Table 3.2: Common cancer biomarkers detected by biosensors
389.Table 3.3: Examples of biosensors used in therapeutic monitoring
